![]() In particular, there is growing understanding of pathways such as homologous recombination, lesion bypass, and mismatch repair that react when the response of direct reversal proteins and BER is insufficient. In human cells, both normal.ĭespite recent progress, the complexity of DNA damage responses to methylating agents is still being discovered. Direct reversal proteins and BER thus counteract the toxic, mutagenic and clastogenic effects of methylating agents.ĭNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome. There has been substantial progress elucidating direct reversal proteins that remove methyl groups and base excision repair (BER), which removes and replaces methylated bases. MMS and MNNG modify DNA by adding methyl groups to a number of nucleophilic sites on the DNA bases, although MNNG produces a greater percentage of O- methyl adducts. These agents have been utilized to uncover and explore pathways of DNA repair, DNA damage response, and mutagenesis. The chemical methylating agents methylmethane sulfonate (MMS) and N- methyl- N′- nitro- N- nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) have been used for decades as classical DNA damaging agents.
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